Fallacies involving credibility and context

Fallacies involving credibility and context Chapter 6 Fallacies Involving Credibility Fallacies of Context Fallacies Involving Credibility APPEAL TO AUTHORITY using testimonial evidence for a proposition when the conditions for credibility are not satisfied or the use of such evidence is inappropriate. This is usually called appeal to false authority, because not all appeals to authority are bad. Think of any celebrity endorsement commercial-Michael Jordan telling you to wear Hanes underwear. MJ is awful cool, but hes no Undergarment Scientist. From an advertising point of view this is good business, but not from the logical viewpoint. More sinister occurrences happen when someone who is an authority in a specific field urges a proposition concerning a related field. For example, you may have seen one of these commercials for the miracle weight loss pill-the endorser in the white lab coat with the stethoscope is not a doctor at all (in one case I saw someone in labeled in residency which is apparently all the experience you need to give a medical recommendation for super-fat-destroying pills). AD HOMINEM-using a negative trait of a speaker as evidence that their statement is false or their argument is weak. Abusive This is the easiest form of this fallacy to spot. It goes like this You shouldnt pick Susan to be on our basketball team because shes a computer geek. This fallacy aims at saying something distasteful about a persons character. It is appropriate to attack someones character if it is on a relevant topic. If the prosecutions star witness has a history of lying, that is very pertinent to the case. Exception to the rule it is OK to point out a negative personality trait as long as it is relevant. For instance, Ms. Smiggles declares that she saw Mr. Rwowrth murder Mr. Gritspit. But many of her friends and coworkers have declared that Ms. Smiggles is a notoriously liar. Circumstantial-This form of Ad Hominem aims to hurt a persons reputation through an association with something in that persons context. For instance You shouldnt vote for Hilary Clinton because her husbands brother is in jail. You can attack someone for being in a bad circumstance that they helped cause. For example if someone is running for political office and it comes out that they were once part of a business that went bankrupt and that candidate had made decisions that contributed to the companys demise, that would be important evidence to consider. Tu Quoque-This means you too; it happens when one corrupt politician says to another corrupt politician Youre corrupt and the other one responds that doesnt matter, you are too! That is to say, this is not a real excuse. If we found out that the Secretary of Defense had been using his government credit card to buy weekends in France, the Secretary of Defense will not help himself by saying, but everyones doing it! Poisoning the Well-A particularly wicked kind of attack. For example if someone were to say Of course you support universal health care, youre a liberal! The insinuation is that the accused is so dominated by their own ideology that they cant think straight (see terrorists). The accused person can now say nothing that is not suspicious. Every reason that accused person would produce to support their claims will fall under the category, Things Liberals Always Say. So the accused person is left defenseless. The other way round it might look like this Of course you support increased defense spending, youre a conservative! implying that being a conservative made it impossible to rationally consider defense spending. Surely there are people who are so completely wrapped in their own point of view that they cannot be rational, but this kind of attack is bad because it prevents any further debate. Fallacies of Context FALSE ALTERNATIVE (FALSE DELIMA) excluding relevant possibilities without justification. This fallacy usually presents two alternatives, one which the arguer wants you to pick and one which is undesirable. For example, You can either volunteer for military service now, or you can be drafted later. You dont want to wait to be drafted later as grunt, so you should volunteer now. The problem is that those arent the only two options available to us. This fallacy is often committed by the demagogues who say things like youre either with us or youre against us. The move tries to scare people into joining the speaker for fear of becoming their enemy. POST HOC-using the fact that one even preceded another as sufficient evidence for the conclusion that the first caused the second. This will be the foundation of a lot of the superstitions. I stepped under a ladder, and that made me have a bad day. Stepping under the ladder only came before the rest of my day, but stepping under the ladder did not cause the rest of my day to sour. More sophisticated versions of this fallacy seek to reinterpret history such as Since the American Civil War occurred before World War I, the Civil War is obviously the cause of World War I. Slipper Slope-This version of Post Hoc seeks to set up a chain of events to connect two unrelated propositions. Heres an example If you start listening to the Beatles, youll want to listen to other rock n roll, then youll listen to Nirvana, then youll start smoking and drinking, and that will lead marijuana, which will in turn lead to coke, crack, meth, and steroids, and the only way to keep up youre habit youll have to steal, and someone will shoot you. So, if you dont want to be shot to death, dont listen to the Beatles. HASTY GENERALIZATION-inferring a general proposition from an inadequate sample of particular cases. Taking to few samples and then generalizing to broadly is whats happening here. This fallacy is most often seen in arriving at stereotypes of people. For instance, The perpetrators of the 9/11 massacre were Islamic, therefore all Islamic people are terrorists. COMPOSITION-inferring that a whole has a property merely because its parts have that property For example, This sparkplug is part of the car. It is very light. So, the whole car must be light. This is a lot like Hasty Generalization. Heres a more sinister example, Ralph is Native-American and Ralph is an anarchist, so all Native-Americans must be anarchists. DIVISION-inferring that a part has a property merely because the whole has that property. For instance, This computer is heavy, so all of its parts must be heavy. More sinisterly, In the U.S., most people believe in God, so my buddy, Garth, must believe in God.

Ecological System’s Theory: Understanding Urie Brofenbrenner

While growing up in the 1970’s and 1980’s, during a time when homes were comprised of two parents and strong community involvement; children clung to the high ideals of possibly becoming an astronauts, a doctors, a lawyer, members of the NBA, educators and clergymen. These ideals were possible because of the values laid down by parents and their belief that each child should be better than those that came before them. Values of discipline, integrity, respect and dedication were lived on a daily basis, and settling for nothing but the best was definitely thrust upon you. Today, we see homes with one parent (usually the mother) and communities where your neighbor is your biggest enemy; struggling to survive because of the lack of rules put in place by the parent. Children are being disrespectful to authority figures, because parents refuse to create an atmosphere in which they were raised in. Many parents are being forced to work long hours to provide for the family, and children are raising themselves and making decisions that have no clear-cut design. Since young children are forced to make decisions on their own, many lack the direction in which they need to be successful in society. This is a direct result of parents who did not have the tutelage of parenthood, and can only pass on what they learned growing up, and the children have no role model to follow. Urie Brofenbreener, a developmental theorist, who developed a system model of human behavior, which described factors that led children down different paths and contributed to human development. In this paper, I will describe the various levels of the Ecological System’s Theory and how they relate to my growth as a person. Furthermore, I will describe how the different levels influenced my decision to not only complete a Masters Degree, but to enroll in a second Masters Degree program. Finally, I will show how the Ecological System and its processes have changed the direction of my career goals and forced me to rethink my desired contributions to society. In 1970, Urie Brofenbrenner was born, and so was the beginning of a desire to build a system that depicted the development of children and their behaviors while growing up. The Ecological Systems Theory has four levels that comprise the system which are Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem and Macrosystem. The first level is described as the Microsystems level. This level is the closest to the child, because of the individuals who have an immediate impact and play the most significant role in forming the child’s behavior. This level is considered the most important level of the four. Involved in this level are parents, teachers, neighborhood, and schools. This level is considered the most important because the child spends most time interacting with individuals within this layer. As a young male growing up in a single-parent home, I did not have the luxury of receiving values from two parents, so I had to rest my lorals, on that of my mother. My mother was the person that shaped and molded my early set of values, which gave me something to build upon as an adult. My siblings and I appreciated the hard work, loyalty and honesty our mother displayed in everything she did. The role she played in my life was valuable. But, there were more who played a major in my development. During the 70’s, 80’s and 90’s, neighborhoods were labeled as villages, and the motto was â€Å"It takes a village to raise our children. † Our neighborhood was like family. Each adult was empowered to discipline a child that got out of line or disrespected an individual in an authoritative position. Today, neighborhoods are living in a state of fear, due to the increase of violence of the young people who live in their neighborhoods. Youth are no longer receiving the values we grew up on, and make decisions that impact not only them, but a community. Gone is the mindset of the â€Å"village†. Parents are getting younger, which equals to fewer homes having the moral fortitude to develop youth that display integrity and loyalty. Children are no longer receiving the physical attributes of kindheartedness and dedication, but in fact, children are taking on the characteristics of their younger parents, who display anger and an attitude that everyone owes them something. The microsystem level may evolve over time, because each generation can change the system. Next is the Mesosytems level. Authors Jennifer Boemmel and Joan Briscoe (2009), states this level has a direct link to Microsystems such as the family experiences to school experiences, family experiences to peer experiences, school experiences to religious experiences. My family experiences of love and togetherness, allowed me to form my attitude towards making friends and learning how to socialize. It also taught me how to remain positive in the midst of turmoil. According to Brofenbrenner, if a child goes without positive family experiences, he or she may experience difficulty in making and sustaining friendships. The third level of the Ecological Systems Theory is the Exosystem level. Although it does not have a direct effect on the child, the exosystems level is very important in shaping a child’s behavioral pattern. As a Juvenile Probation Officer, this particular level is viewed on a daily basis; where single parents are forced to work double shifts and the children are left in the care of a neighbor or family friend, who does not have the same nurturing attitude as the immediate parent. This creates a stressful atmosphere, forcing the children to turn to people who display that loving and caring attitude. Normally gangs and kids who frequently commit criminal activities. Asked why they committed a crime or join a gang? The answer is always the same. â€Å"They love me† or â€Å"I had nothing better to do†. In my line of work, this false sense of being and existence, makes my job difficult and turning the youth around is pretty much impossible. The fourth and final level, is the Macrosystem. This level describes the culture in which the child lives in. Each child within this level shares a common identity, values and heritage. Growing up with six siblings, we all had different goals, but the end result for each of us was to be successful at whatever we chose to do. The values bestowed upon me, was the same for all of my siblings. We all shared the same sense of accomplishment and competiveness. Desiring to be better than the next sibling. My younger brother and I, shared the same drive when it came to sports. He wanted to be better than me, and I wanted to be better than him. We both had drive, which is a characteristic we saw in our mother. Although, we did not share all of the same characteristics, we did share the same level of desire. This level also supports the child within the environment and can influence the child’s behavioral development. Although never mentioned with the others, there is a fifth level of the original Ecological Systems Theory. The Chronosystem level involves the total of all the individuals experiences over their lifetime. For instance, when I was younger, my goal was to be a Guardian Angel. Guardian Angels were individuals who protected the black community and warded off any criminal activity. This group was non-violent, and did not carry weapons. My desire to be a protector, eventually led me to the United States Air Force at the age of twenty-two. For 23 years, I watched over this country with a disciplined eye that allowed me to become the person I am today. Also, my serving presented me the opportunity to pass along values to my daughter. Analyze how the levels influenced your decision to enter graduate school to obtain a Masters Degree. How the Brofenbrenner’s levels might impact the career goals within your area of specialization.

Confidentiality And Confidentiality On Standards For...

Most Important Standards After reading a variety of material on standards for career professionals, the two most important are confidentiality/privacy and professional responsibility. Confidentiality/Privacy Confidentiality/privacy are critical in counseling. The communication between the client and the counselor must stay confidential, unless client intends to harm self or others or legally information is needed for the court system (Capuzzi Stauffer, 2012). The National Career Development (NCDA) discusses the limitations to confidentiality in standard B.1.d (NCDA, 2015). A career professional is required to discuss with the client the limitations to confidentiality at the beginning and throughout the counseling process (NCDA, 2015). The ACA Code of Ethics breaks down confidentiality and privacy into two sections. Standard B.1.b discusses respect of privacy, which contains the counselor asking questions only if it is beneficial to the counseling process (ACA, 2014). Standard B1.c. discusses the respect for confidentiality and the disclosure of information only if there is consent or legal justification. I believe maintaining confidentiality/privacy is one of the most important aspects in counseling. The client will understand the significance of confidentiality and its limitations, while building trust into the counselor. Once the trust between the client and counselor is formed, the client can succeed through the counseling process. Confidentiality/privacy isShow MoreRelatedIeee Code Of Ethics And Standards Of Conduct880 Words   |  4 PagesEthics and Standards of conduct process for inexperienced teachers and to update career teachers, Ms Harrison stated that the MS Code of Ethics and Standards are covered in new teacher orientation before the commencement of the school term. Once school is in session, building level administrators are to review standards with new hires and career teachers. 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Analysis Of The Book Of Kill A Mockingbird - 1271 Words

Journey Tasopulos Brannen ELA-8 19 April, 2015 Novel Analysis: To Kill A Mockingbird Selection: I selected this book because its the best book I have ever read. I read To Kill A Mockingbird last year and my class wrote an essay about this book, since I already know so much about this book I thought it would be a nice and quick read. I thought it would be a great enjoyment to refresh my memory of this epic book. I watched the movie soon after I read the whole book and it was very fun to pick out the not-placed and wrong-worded parts of the movie. To Kill A Mockingbird is about a sister, brother, and their friend Dill finding items in their neighbors tree, soon after this their father was the lawyer of a case on an african american. Genre: To Kill A Mockingbird is a historical realistic mystery all combined to create an award winning book. This book is historical because it has to do with the time period they are in, the Great Depression. 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